King Arthur: The legend of Camelot

Few legends are as enduring as that of King Arthur. The monarch was first mentioned in the 9th century and, a millennium and a half on, he remains alive and well in the public consciousness. Far from forgotten, he is part of popular culture, a regular subject of movies and books, and is so famous, in fact, that many people believe that he was a real, historical person.

The legend —or myth— came into being at a time when Britain was being invaded by barbarians. The Romans had left the country by 410 and the Saxons, Angles and Jutes, from modern-day Germany and Denmark, took advantage of its vulnerability. Over a century of fighting ensued, with the native Celtic population resisting the invaders. They had as little success against them as they did against the Romans. 

THE DARK AGES

There was a rumour that a British military leader won a victory at the Battle of Mount Badon around 500. He may have been the first inspiration for King Arthur. However, these were the Dark Ages. There are no written records from this period in history. Later, around 828, the monk Nennius provides the earliest reference to Arthur in his Historia Brittonum. In his chaotic collection of writings, he attributes twelve victories to King Arthur, ending with Mount Badon.

Merlin the wizard

Before Harry Potter, the world’s favourite wizard was Merlin. Of all the characters in the legend of King Arthur, Merlin is arguably the most popular. He features in many of his own stories. An enigmatic figure, he is usually good, but occasionally bad. 

He was added to the Arthurian legend by Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regnum Britaniae in 1136 CE, based on the Welsh mythical bard Myrddin. Merlin’s character has been portrayed in various ways over the centuries. Monmouth described him as a wise and gifted young man, with the power to shape-shift and see the future. Robert de Boron depicted him as the prophet of the Holy Grail. Sir Thomas Malory’s chronicle showed him as Arthur’s mentor, counsellor and friend, involved in his life from conception to death. According to Monmouth, he was the son of a nun and a devil or incubus. Born from such opposites, he became very wise. The ideas of the sword in the stone and the Round Table were his. Despite his wisdom, he was bewitched by the Lady of the Lake. He fell in love with her and taught her magic. She then used her new powers to imprison or kill him.

Some three hundred years later, in 1133, historian-cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth created Historia Regnum Britaniae (History of the Kings of Britain), which included the first complete tale of King Arthur. His chronicle popularised the myth, establishing key elements of the story. Arthur’s seat was Caerleon, he had a magical sword called Caliburnus, and he had a wise mentor named Merlin.

THE ROUND TABLE

The poet Robert Wace translated Monmouth’s document into French around 1155, and introduced the Round Table. Chrétien de Troyes, another French poet, then added adventure, chivalry and romance to the mix. The knights of the Round Table now had personal stories, and he came up with the famous love triangle between Arthur, Guinevere and Lancelot. 

This being the time of the Crusades, the legend gained a Christian dimension through the work of Robert de Boron. His trilogy of poems —Joseph d’Arimathie, Merlin and Perceval— are collectively known as the “Little Grail Cycle”. In these works, Joseph of Arimathea takes the Holy Grail to the Vale of Avalon, later believed to be Glastonbury. Christian lore says that Joseph founded a church there, Glastonbury Abbey, where Arthur and Guinevere were eventually buried.

A LEGEND IS BORN

With further retellings, the story evolved. Caerleon became Camelot, and Caliburnus became Excalibur. The legend as we know it today mainly comes from the work of Sir Thomas Malory. In 1469, he used all preceding stories, tales, poems and myths to compile Le Morte d’Arthur (The Death of Arthur), a complete recounting of Arthur’s life. Living during the Wars of the Roses, Malory created an idyllic tale of a heroic king, surrounded by gallant knights, doing noble deeds. It was one of the first printed books and the only surviving manuscript is held at the British Library in London.

AN IDEAL KINDGOM 

As Malory’s story tells it, Arthur was the eldest son of king Uther Pendragon. As these were dangerous times, Uther sends the boy away to be raised in secret. When the king dies, the wise wizard Merlin places a sword in a stone, on which is engraved: “Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone and anvil, is rightwise king born of all England.” Many try and fail, but Arthur pulls the sword out effortlessly. Throughout the rest of his youth, Merlin counsels Arthur, who grows up to be a worthy king, ruling from a castle and a court named Camelot. He gathers a group of loyal knights, who meet at the Round Table, where all seated there are equal.

Pop culture icon

The legend of King Arthur is alive and well today. Modern takes portray him as a brave warrior, a reluctant leader, a wise old king, a teenage heartthrob and even as a Transformer. Not all interpretations are complimentary and some are outright ridiculous. The Monty Python crew questioned his royal authority in their hilarious 1970s parody: “Strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of government.” 

EXCALIBUR

The Sword in the Stone substantiates Arthur the right to rule. In some versions of the legend, the Sword in the Stone is broken in Arthur’s first battle. Then, The Lady of the Lake hands him Excalibur, a sword with magic powers. Armed with Excalibur, he and his knights fight the Saxons, have many adventures, and search for the Holy Grail. This was the cup used at the Last Supper in which Joseph of Arimathea caught drops of Jesus’ blood at the crucifixion. 

Arthur’s end comes when his nephew Mordred tries to take over the throne. Distracted by the attraction between his wife Guinevere and the knight Lancelot, Arthur is attacked by Mordred and both are mortally wounded. Arthur is carried off to the magical isle of Avalon where he waits until his country once again needs him. This is why he is called the “once and future king.”

MORAL VICTORY 

Throughout history, authors of Arthurian legend have added their own touch to the tales, influenced by the times they lived in. Even today, there are creative re-imaginings of the myth in literature, theatre and film. It is reassuring that the ideals that Arthur stood for, of chivalry, bravery and honour, are still appealing today. 

CAMELOT by Rachel Roberts

While many people think that there must be some basis for his existence, the historical legitimacy of King Arthur has been widely disputed by historians. Some have argued, in fact, that Arthur was a legend fabricated from the deeds of several different people. The same can be said of the place where Arthur held court, Camelot, and the location of the famous Round Table. Over the centuries, four principle sites have been suggested:

Caerleon, South Wales

The name ‘Caerleon’ might sound typically Celtic, but it is actually a corruption of the Latin words castrum (fortress) and legio (legion). During the 5th and 6th centuries the Anglo-Saxons pushed the Romano-Britons of England and Wales to the west of Britain and the Welsh are their direct descendants. So equating Camelot with Caerleon in Wales is far from implausible. 

Cadbury Castle, Somerset

This Iron Age hill fort near Yeovil in Somerset is not far from Glastonbury Tor, a location shrouded in mystery and legend. A causeway, known as King Arthur’s Hunting Track, links the two sites. It is thought to have been in use until around AD 580. Archaeological excavations on the site have revealed a substantial building which could have been a great hall.

Tintagel Castle, Cornwall

Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote that Arthur was born in Cornwall at Tintagel Castle, and in the late 1980s a 1,500-year-old piece of slate was found there with two Latin inscriptions that seemed to link Arthur with Tintagel. Recent excavations have revealed pottery from the 5th and 6th centuries, although the ruined castle we see today was built in the early 12th century.

Winchester, Hampshire

Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur locates Camelot at Winchester Castle. Again, the castle was built in the late 11th century, and the famous Round Table on display in the Great Hall was almost certainly made during the time of Henry VIII. However, in the 9th century, the town of Winchester was the ancient court and capital of King Alfred the Great, a wise leader and great statesman who also managed to defeat the Danish invaders. Is it possible that some of Alfred’s positive traits went into the historical composition of the legend of King Arthur?

CUSTODIANS OF CAMELOT by Rachel Roberts

Although we will never know if King Arthur and his knights actually existed, their influence has been immense over the centuries, inspiring poetry, chronicles, art, film, video games, and other media. In 1948 the International Arthurian Society was founded with the aim of studying and being the custodians of this huge and growing body of creative and academic work.
The University of Nottingham’s Dr. Bonnie Millar is a member of the society. She explains that while historical records on King Arthur are limited, there are some very early references to Arthur, suggesting that he could have been a real person. What’s more, she says, royal houses in the medieval period used this fragmentary evidence to prove their pedigree and establish their right to rule. So, real or not, he was seen as a historical figure. Many of the stories stressed chivalric values, and in the 19th-century these were embellished to revive the King Arthur legend, depicting him as a Romantic hero. This, says Dr. Millar, reflects an aspect of the human psyche: we are inspired by the idea of a great leader who, despite the setbacks, triumphs in moral spirit.